Sanskrit Word in English: Yoga

The Sanskrit word YOGA is now very familiar to speakers of English!  What is fascinating about the word "yoga" is that it is also a way to see how Sanskrit and English are related languages, both belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. The Sanskrit word "yoga" is from the Indo-European root *yeug- which is also the root of English words like "yoke" and also "join." If you are interested in the history of the Indo-European languages, you can read more at Wikipedia. You can see a detailed list of the Indo-European words from the yeug- root at the UT Indo-European Lexicon.

The idea behind the Sanskrit word is a "joining" or "yoking," in the sense of harnessing something in order to put it to use. It can also refer to the sense of "joining" with the divine.  You can read about the history of yoga and the different yoga traditions of India in this article at Wikipedia.

In Sanskrit, a man who practices yoga is called a "yogi" (yogin), while a woman who practices yoga is a "yogini." Sanskrit is a language that forms many compound words; you can see a list of Sanskrit compound words with yoga at Vedabase.net.

(Statue of Shiva in Rishikesh, India)

Sanskrit Word in English: Juggernaut

Today's word is "juggernaut" — and for this word, there is an entire Wikipedia article devoted to its origin and usage in English.

Short version: the word comes from Sanskrit Jagannatha, World-Lord, an honorific title sometimes applied to Krishna, one of the avatars of the god Vishnu, although the Jagannatha is also worshiped as a separate divinity.

The English usage is from the so-called "Chariot of Juggernaut," which was a cart carrying an image of the Jagannatha for a Ratha Yatra (chariot procession) festival. These temple carts could sometimes be huge in size, hence the sense of a "juggernaut" as a moving force that cannot be stopped. According to a more fanciful legend, the most devoted followers of Jagannatha would throw themselves under the wheels of the wagon to be crushed to death in an act of sacrificial devotion, giving the word "juggernaut" an additional sense of blind devotion. This fanciful idea goes back to the 14th-century Travels of Sir John Mandeville, which you can read about in this Wikipedia article.

The ISKCON movement (International Society for Krishna Consciousness) has promoted the Jagannatha festival around the world. The image below shows a Jagannath Ratha Yatra in London, 2011:

Sanskrit Word in English: Avatar

The English word "avatar" has been so widely used and familiar that it does seem like an English word now, but it comes from Sanskrit! The Sanskrit word AVATAR (avatara) means a "descent" in the sense that a god comes down from heaven and takes on an earthly form. An avatar is a specific form of incarnation, the manifestation of a divine being in the form of an earthly human or animal. You can learn more in this Wikipedia article: Avatar.

The most famous avatars in the Hindu tradition are the "Ten Avatars" of the god Vishnu: The Fish, The Tortoise, The Boar, The Man-Lion, The Dwarf, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki (although the list differs in some details from one Hindu tradition to another). You can read more about the incarnations in this Wikipedia article: Dashavatara.

In English, the word "avatar" has become especially associated with the way human beings are represented in the environments created by digital computers. The Oxford English Dictionary cites an examples of this usage from 1986, although the most famous early example is the use by Neal Stephenson in his marvelous science fiction novel Snow Crash, published in 1992, which happens to be one of my all-time favorite science fiction novels!

Meanwhile, this lovely painting shows the "Dasavatara," the Ten Incarnations of Vishnu:

And of course I had to include something from the film Avatar:

Hindi Word in English: Jungle

The English word JUNGLE is from the Hindi word jangal (also Marathi), meaning a "forest, wasteland," which in turn is derived from Sanskrit jangala, "desert, uncultivated land."

The modern English sense of a "land overgrown with vegetation" dates to the 19th century, and the Oxford English Dictionary suspects that its evolution in English might be influenced by the word "tangle."

Here's a picture of an elephant in the Wayanad Tholpetty Range in Kerala, India:

You might be familiar with Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Book and Second Jungle Book; he was born in India and grew up there. More at Wikipedia.

 

Indian Word in English: Tank

The English word TANK in the sense of a "pool" or "lake" comes from India; the Gujarati word tankh means a cistern or water reservoir, as does the Marathi word tanka. These words in turn may derive from Sanskrit tadagam, meaning a "pond" or "lake."

The English phrase "tank top" is related to this meaning of tank; a tank suit was originally a bathing suit for swimming in a tank, i.e. in a swimming pool.

The word "tank" also came to refer to artificial receptacles for water even of a small size, such as fish tanks. Then, in the early 20th century, the word "tank" was used for containers of liquid fuel, like the "gas tank" of a car. This is also where we get the word "tanker" as in oil tankers.

The use of "tank" to refer to a military vehicle dates to 1915 as a kind of code word, chosen because this new weapon looked something like a benzene storage tank. (Military "tanks" were first used in action on the Western Front of World War I in September 1916.)

The image below shows a temple tank at Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu, India:

Hindi Word in English: Parcheesi

The English word "parcheesi" comes from the Hindi word pachisi, from pachis "twenty-five," from Sanskrit panca "five" + vimsatih "twenty."

This Sanskrit root panca for "five" is related to the Greek pent- root that we see in English words like pentagon, pentagram, etc.

In the traditional Indian game of pachisi, played with cowrie shells, twenty-five was the highest throw of the shells, hence the name. In modern parcheesi, which is played with dice, five is still an important number in the game because pieces move into play when you throw a five.

Although the Indian game is supposed to be quite ancient, the oldest testimony for the game dates to the 16th century.  Legend has it that the Emperor Akbar of India had a courtyard in the shape of a pachisi board, with members of the harem acting as the pieces.

In the ancient Indian epic, the Mahabharata, there is a dice game which is crucial to the plot. The description of the game in the epic does not seem to correspond to pachisi, but modern artists have imagined that the game was indeed pachisi, or something very much like it, as you can see in this 19th-century illustration:

The first American version of the game was called Patcheesi and a copyright claim was filed in 1867. The name was later changed to Parcheesi, and the North American rights are currently held by Hasbro. The Parcheesi board game shown below is from Wikipedia:

For more about games in India, see this article: Ancient India, The Birthplace of Modern Game Design.

Sanskrit Word in English: Pundit

The English word PUNDIT is from Sanskrit pandita, a scholar or learned person. It comes via Hindi payndit. You will now sometimes see the word spelled "pandit" in English, rather than the older spelling of "pundit." The word "pundit" is so commonly used in English that it has its own Wikipedia article.

There is a Brahmin community known as the Kashmiri Pandits; the photograph below shows some Kashmiri Pandits, circa 1895.

Sanskrit Word in English: Singapore

The name of the city-state Singapore is from the Malay Singapura, which is of Sanskrit origin: Simhapuram, which means "Lion-City."

You can also see the Sanskrit word simha in the name Narasimha, the "Man-Lion," one of the incarnations of Vishnu.

You can see the Sanskrit root puram in other place names such as Rampur, Mirzapur, etc. This Sanskrit word puram is related to the Greek word polis, which you can also see in city names, such as ancient Persepolis or modern Minneapolis. Both Sanskrit puram and Greek polis come from PIE *pele- meaning a "citadel, a fortified high place."

The only lions you will find in Singapore are in the Singapore Zoo, but the "merlion" (half-lion, half-fish) has become a symbol of Singapore tourism. For more about the legend of Singapore's merlion, see this page: The Merlion of the Lion City: How Singapore's Icon and Nickname Came About.

Here's a picture of Singapore's merlion:

Sanskrit Word in English: Chakra

You may have heard the Sanskrit word CHAKRA used in English. The Sanskrit word refers to a circle or a wheel, and it is related to the Greek word kyklos, which gives us English "cycle." Thanks to the popularity of yoga, the word chakra is now used in English to refer to the centers of spiritual powers in the body. You can read more about the body's chakras at Wikipedia.

In Indian mythology, the word chakra refers in particular to the discus, a weapon used by some of the gods, and by Vishnu in particular. Vishnu's chakra is called the Sudarshana Chakra; you can read more about that at Wikipedia. Here Vishnu holds the Chakra in his upper right hand:

There is also a sports term in English that comes from Sanskrit chakra. The English word "chukker" ( also spelled "chukka" and "chucker") refers to a period in a polo game. It comes from Hindi chakkar, which comes in turn from Sanskrit chakra. The phrase "chukker boot" refers to a type of leather boot worn by polo players.

The image below shows the chakras as depicted in a yoga manual from the 17th century:

Sanskrit Word in English: Mandala

You may know the word MANDALA, which is a Sanskrit word meaning disc or circle, especially a charmed circle with mystical powers. Mandalas are used as objects of meditation in Hinduism, Buddhism and other religions, and also in Jungian psychology. You can read more about mandalas in this Wikipedia article.

The image below shows a Hindu mandala:

This image shows a Tibetan Buddhist monk creating a sand mandala:

The image below is a mandala painted by one of Jung's patients:

Sanskrit Word in English: Nirvana

Did you know that NIRVANA is a Sanskrit word? It literally means "extinction" in the sense of a fire going on, nir-vana "not blowing," like a candle that is blown out.

In Hinduism and Buddhism, nirvana refers to the liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth as governed by karma. The Sanskrit word for this liberation is moksha, and nirvana is the peace of mind that accompanies the liberation. You can find out more in this Wikipedia article: Nirvana.

By metaphorical extension, it has come to refer in English to a state of perfect happiness, a kind of paradise or other idyllic existence.

(Mahavira's Nirvana)

Arabic Word in English: Serendipity

The word SERENDIPITY was coined by Horace Walpole in 1754, creating the English word on the basis of the place name "Serendip," which is an old name for Sri Lanka (Ceylon); it is sometimes spelled Serendib. Walpole had in mind a fairy tale called The Three Princes of Serendip in which the heroes were always making happy discoveries by accident, hence the meaning Walpole gave to serendipity: "[people] making discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things they were not in quest of." The word "serendipity" (not capitalized) now refers to any type of happy accident or a pleasant surprise. You can read more about the Three Princes of Serendip in this Wikipedia article.

The English place name Serendip is from the Arabic name, Sarandib. There are in turn various etymologies proposed for this word; the one I like best is the Sanskrit  Sinhaladvipa, the Lion Island (Sinhala-Dvipa). Another possibility is Suvarnadvipa, the Golden Island (Suvarna-Dvipa). For more about the names of Sri Lanka, see this Wikipedia article.

(Maskeliya, in Sri Lanka)

Sanskrit Word in English: Mantra

You may have seen the Sanskrit word MANTRA used in English. The word in Sanskrit means a "thought" or "an instrument for thinking," something you do with your mind.

The Sanskrit root man- ("think") is related to the English word "mind" and to "mental" (from Latin mens/ment-). In particular, a Sanskrit mantra is the thought behind a ritual action that is expressed in the form of a sound. Mantras are powerful, so you will sometimes see the word translated as "prayer" or as "spell" (in the sense of a magic spell).

Because mantras are often repeated, the word has come to be used in English to refer to anything that is repeated over and over again, like a formula or a slogan.

The most famous mantra is the one expressed through the sound OM, which is shown in written form below. You can find out more in the Wikipedia article about Mantra and also in the article about OM:

Here is the mantra shown inside a mandala (another word I will want to post about eventually!):

(image by mailumes at Flickr)

Hindi Word in English: Thug

The English word THUG comes from Hindi thag (and Marathi thak), which means "a conman, a criminal." The words likely come in turn from Sanskrit sthaga, which means "cunning." Used with a capital T, Thug referred to a member of a professional association of robbers and assassins in India. They are mentioned in English sources as early as the 17th century, and the association was active throughout the 18th century until it was finally suppressed in the early 19th century. You can read about the history of the Thugs in this Wikipedia article - it's really fascinating!

By the time the Thugs had been eliminated, however, the word "thug" had taken on a life of its own. Beginning in the 19th century, "thug" (with a lower-case "t") continued to be used in English to refer to a cutthroat or ruffian more generally. It's acquired yet new meanings in the world of rap and hip-hop music (e.g., Thug Life), as you can see from the entires in the Urban Dictionary.

The painting below shows Thugs at work, pinning their victim down in order to strangle him:

Hindi Word in English: Shampoo

The first use of "shampoo" in English was in the late 18th century as a verb meaning "to massage." The word was borrowed from the Hindi champo, an imperative form of champna meaning "to press, knead." The Hindi word is likely from Sanskrit capayati, "pounds, kneads."

Before the spelling "shampoo" became regularized in English, you could see it spelled "champoe."

The modern meaning of "shampoo" as "washing the hair" dates to 1860. You can read a detailed history about shampoo in this Wikipedia article: Shampoo.

Photo by Kerry Lannert at Flickr.

Sanskrit Word in English: Guru

The word GURU comes to English from the Hindi word guru, which means a teacher or a priest. The Hindi word in turn comes from Sanskrit guru, a teacher.

The Sanskrit word derives from the proto-Indo-European root *gru which means "heavy," as in the English word "gravity." So, your guru is an imposing person, heavy with wisdom, someone whose teachings have weight, gravity.

The term guru is important in the Hindi tradition, and also in the Sikh tradition, where the word can be used to refer to a book that is a religious guide, the Guru Granth Sahib.

The image below shows Parashurama ("Rama-with-an-Axe") who was the guru to the heroes of the Mahabharata Bhishma, Drona, and Karna:

Sanskrit Word in English: Brahmin

The Sanskrit word brahmana, usually rendered as brahmin in English, refers to a Hindu priest. The brahmins (priests) were one of the four classes in ancient Indian culture, along with the kshatriya class of military rulers, the vaishya class of merchants and farmers, and the shudra class of servants and workers. You can read more about Hindu brahmins at Wikipedia.

In 19th-century English, the word "brahmin" became specifically associated in a jesting way with the upper class of Boston thanks to an 1860 article by Oliver Wendell Holmes. You can read more about the "Boston Brahmins" at Wikipedia.

The image below shows brahmins conducting a marriage ceremony:

Sanskrit Word in English: Ashram

You may have heard the Sanskrit word ashram used in English to refer to a spiritual retreat or religious hermitage. The Sanskrit word is from the root shrama, meaning effort, specifically the effort one makes towards spiritual liberation. You can read more about ashrams at Wikipedia.

As English-speakers became interested in Hindu religious practices, the word ashram began to be used in English. For example, in a lecture given in America (text published in 1918), Rabindranath Tagore explained that "the students and the teachers who have come together in the ashram ... grow towards the emancipation of their minds into the consciousness of the infinite, not through any process of teaching or outer discipline, but by the help of an unseen atmosphere of aspiration that surrounds the place."

The image below shows the Gandhi Ashram at Sabarmati in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. This was the ashram where Gandhi was living in 1930 when he began the great Salt Satyagraha. You can read more about the Sabarmati Ashram at Wikipedia.

Sanskrit Word in English: Aryan

The English word Aryan comes from Sanskrit arya, meaning "noble, honorable, of good family." The Sanskrit speakers of ancient times used this word to refer to themselves as a people. In the ancient Sanskrit epics the word arya described someone who acted honorably, upholding Dharma. For example, Rama is arya, and so is his ally, the monkey-king Sugriva. On the other hand, someone who is anarya (an-arya) acts against Dharma. So, for example, when Dushasana tried to strip Draupadi's clothing, he was anarya. You can read more about this term and its usage in ancient Sanskrit texts at Wikipedia.

In 19th-century Europe, the word Aryan was adopted by German scholars who contrasted Aryans with Semites, a meaning which is completely alien to the ancient Indian context of the word's meaning. Later, German Nazis used the word to describe members of the Nordic master race. In English, the word is now part of the vocabulary of white supremacy.

The image below shows Rama and Sugriva in an 11th-century carving from Cambodia:

Sanskrit Word in English: Buddha

The word Buddha comes to English from Sanskrit. The Sanskrit word means "awakened," either literally awakened (as from sleep) or awakened to a higher consciousness. There is a related word, Bodhisattva, which means an awakened or enlightened being (bodhi-sattva).

In English, we don't have a related word, but in the Slavic languages, you can see the same root used for waking up from sleep; in Polish, a budzik is an alarm clock!

In common usage, Buddha refers to Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), the founder of Buddhism. You can read more about Gautama Buddha at Wikipedia. Buddhism began in India, and some Hindus regard the Buddha as an incarnation of the god Vishnu.

The image below shows a Buddha carved in the Bojjannakonda monuments in Andhra Pradesh, India: